Chromatography is a powerful laboratory technique used for separating the components of a mixture. The core principle involves a mixture dissolved in a fluid (the "mobile phase") that is passed through a system containing a stationary material (the "stationary phase"). The different components of the mixture travel through the stationary phase at different speeds, based on their distinct physical and chemical properties such as size, charge, or affinity for the stationary phase. This differential movement causes them to separate. There are various types of chromatography, including gas chromatography (GC), liquid chromatography (LC), and paper chromatography, each tailored for specific types of mixtures.
The technique was first developed by the Russian-Italian botanist Mikhail Tsvet in 1900. He used it to separate plant pigments, such as chlorophylls and carotenoids, by passing a solution of them through a glass column packed with calcium carbonate. The name "chromatography" is derived from the Greek words "chroma" (color) and "graphein" (to write), reflecting the colored bands he observed. The theoretical principles and the development of more advanced methods, such as partition chromatography, were significantly advanced by Archer Martin and Richard Synge, who were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1952 for their work, laying the foundation for modern chromatographic techniques.
Chromatography has become an indispensable analytical and preparative tool in a vast range of scientific and industrial fields. In the pharmaceutical industry, it is essential for purifying drugs and ensuring their quality. In forensics, it is used to analyze blood and urine samples for drugs or to identify substances at crime scenes. Environmental agencies use it to monitor air and water for pollutants. The food and beverage industry relies on it for quality control, such as analyzing the composition of wines or detecting contaminants. It is also a fundamental technique in biochemical and biological research for separating proteins, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules.